, 2001). The anchorage to basement membrane proteins Epacadostat is essential for maintaining the integrity of endothelial cells, and according to the authors this effect may contribute to weakening of vessel wall structure and the consequent effects for hemorrhagic lesions or delayed tissue healing often observed

following B. jararaca snakebite. Damage of endothelial cells was also observed in vivo. Ultrastructural observations of the lung microvasculature of mice injected with jararhagin clearly shows endothelial cell injury associated with extravasation of blood ( Escalante et al., 2003). Detachment between endothelial cells and basement membrane implies in the loss of survival signals in favor to the apoptotic pathways. Indeed, jararhagin induces apoptosis of endothelial cells using a particular mechanism PD-0332991 nmr known

as anoikis (Schattner et al., 2005; Tanjoni et al., 2005). Murine endothelial cell line (Tend) treated with jararhagin undergo a rapid change in cytoskeleton dynamics with cell retraction, accompanied by a rearrangement of actin network and reduction in focal adhesion kinase (FAK) associated to actin and in tyrosine phosphorylated proteins. These effects, which are completely dependent on jararhagin catalytic activity, suggest the toxin interference with focal adhesion contacts and resulted in apoptosis with activation of pro-caspase-3 and alterations in the ratio between Bax/Bcl-xL (Tanjoni et al., 2005). The apoptosis by

anoikis was confirmed treating human umbilical vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs) with jararhagin and similar results were obtained (Baldo et al., 2008). Currently, our group is focused on investigating the action of jararhagin on HUVECs cultured on different substrates under two- or three-dimensional models. Preliminary results indicate that the cell-matrix disruptions induced by jararhagin is enhanced in collagen matrices. These results could be explained by the high affinity of this toxin to collagen that would favor its accumulation in the substrate enhancing the cleavage of focal adhesion contacts and detachment of endothelial cells. Interestingly, despite its ability to cause apoptosis, jararhagin is able to activate endothelial SPTLC1 cells, inducing the gene expression of a number of bioactive mediators as nitric oxide, prostacyclins and IL-8 (Schattner et al., 2005) and of surface-exposed cell adhesion molecules as l-selectin and VCAM-1 (Lopes et al., unpublished data). When injected intradermically, jararhagin doses of approximately 1 μg rapidly induces local hemorrhage in mice (Moura-da-Silva et al., 2003). Systemic hemorrhage was also observed in the lungs and, to a minor extent, in kidneys of experimental mice injected with jararhagin (Escalante et al., 2003). The degradation of vascular basement membrane has been proposed as a key event for the onset of capillary vessel disruption resulting in hemorrhage.