Interestingly, the CD11c.LuciDTR

mice exhibit increased bacterial burden after DT injection in the same pyelonephritis model. Thus, in the absence of the confounding effects of the early neutrophilia, a role for CD11c+ cells in reducing rather than increasing pathogen burden can be revealed. The findings of Tittel et al. [30] raise the question of whether the conclusions from other studies using CD11c.DTR or CD11c.DOG mice need to be revised. For example, in a recent study, Autenrieth et  al. [33] found that animal survival was significantly increased upon DC depletion in CD11c.DOG mice in a model of Yersinia enterocolitica infection see more and that the enhanced survival was mediated by increased neutrophil and monocyte activity. The authors concluded that DCs could regulate neutrophil and monocyte

function in the steady state as well as during bacterial infection. However, when considering the results of Tittel et  al. [30], it is also possible that enhanced survival was due to increased bacterial killing by recruited neutrophils. Thus, DCs could have a smaller role in the regulation of phagocyte activity than might be apparent at first glance [33]. Similarly, in a model of peripheral vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) infection, DC depletion in CD11c.DTR mice did not affect viral clearance in the first 48 h, even though type I interferon production, which is critical for early VSV clearance, was markedly impaired [34]. These unexpected results could again be explained by the induction Sirtuin activator of neutrophilia and monocytosis in CD11c.DTR mice, as neutrophils and monocytes can mount an early innate immune response that limits viral replication. If this were the case, the authors’ conclusion Vitamin B12 that DCs are of limited importance to the early response to peripheral VSV infection would need to be revised [34]. Of note, some of the DC-depleted mice failed to control virus replication in the brain and developed fatal VSV encephalitis, suggesting

that the brain might be excluded from any protective neutrophilia and monocytosis induced by DT treatment of CD11c.DTR mice [34]. Interestingly, the same study showed that after DC depletion VSV-specific CD4+ T-cell responses were not affected, while the expansion of CD8+ T cells was severely impaired [34]. As DCs have been ascribed a crucial role in both CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell activation, the unaltered CD4+ T-cell response is surprising. The authors suggest that there might be another antigen-presenting cell, such as a macrophage, that supports CD4+ T-cell priming. While this may certainly be the case, it is important to determine to what extent such antigen-presenting macrophages/DCs are a result of the monocytosis induced by DC depletion. In summary, although the CD11c.DTR and CD11c.