Patients with hypotension, systemic bleeding, or other systemic venom effects should receive antivenom emergently. Any degree of true neurotoxicity, including localized fasciculations

or myokymia, is an indication for antivenom administration. Some patients may inhibitor Imatinib present with symptoms attributable to anxiety; in the absence of signs of progressive envenomation, these patients can be reassured and observed. Antivenom administration (box 4) Antivenom dosing is titrated to clinical response. The targeted clinical response is often termed, “initial control of the envenomation syndrome,” and consists of arrest of the progression of local tissue venom effects, a clear trend toward improvement in any hematologic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical venom effects, and resolution of all systemic venom effects (excluding fasciculations or myokymia, which may be refractory to antivenom [7,11]. An initial dose of 4 to 6 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical vials was chosen for the premarketing trials because of equivalent binding capacity to then-standard doses of equine antivenom and was shown to be effective in two premarketing studies [11,12]. Subsequent experience has shown that most victims of rattlesnake envenomation achieve initial control with one or two such doses, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical while

most copperhead snake victims can be successfully treated with a single 4-vial dose [39,40]. Very few patients continue to experience progressive venom effects after 18 vials of antivenom [36,41]. However, with the exception of a single case report, patients Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical who did not achieve initial control after 20 vials of antivenom do not respond to subsequent doses [26,29,30,36]. Panel members noted that inexperienced health care providers sometimes use large doses of antivenom in an attempt to treat clinical effects that did not respond to therapy, but could be safely observed. The reason for limiting initial dosing to 4 to 6 vials is primarily cost, but also the theoretical increased risk of serum sickness with larger protein

loads. Initial control doses of less than 4 vials have not Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical been well studied. Antivenom should be administered via intravenous infusion. In animal studies, the combination of subcutaneous and intravenous administration of antivenom was no better than intravenous administration alone[42]. Skin testing is not necessary or recommended prior to administration of the selleck current antivenom [7,43]. In addition to cleavage and removal of the immunogenic Batimastat Fc portion of the immunoglobulin molecule, the currently available antivenom undergoes column affinity purification. Symptoms of acute anaphylactoid reactions, such as pruritus, urticaria, or wheezing occur in approximately 6% of patients [37,44]. Most cases are mild and do not preclude continued administration of antivenom. However, severe acute allergic reactions, including reactions involving airway compromise, have been described [37,45].