Recognition, cessation of further attempt, and prophylactic antibiotics are adequate for management in most cases.60 If bleeding does not stop after a period of observation, application of pressure or EUS-guided injection of epinephrine

at the bleeding site are possible options to achieve hemostasis.60,61 Lee et al. reported a case of retroperitoneal bleed, where the patient presented with abdominal pain and responded to blood transfusion. It was associated with aspirin and prednisone intake.62 The overall complication rate due to hemorrhage is between 0.2% and 6%.60,61 All reported cases of fever as a complication responded to antibiotics, including one case of aspiration pneumonia.61 Antibiotic BVD-523 molecular weight prophylaxis should be given for EUS-FNA of pancreatic cysts.54 A fluoroquinolone given for 3 days after the procedure seems to be the most common practice. The overall infectious complication rate is between 0.2% and 5%.59,61 Acute pancreatitis occurs between 0.6% and 2.6%, and involves mainly

cysts in the pancreatic head and uncinate process.61,62 This is due to the longer distance the Selleckchem HIF inhibitor needle passes through in normal pancreatic tissue during aspiration.62 Most cases have mild to moderate pancreatitis, which respond to conservative measures within 2–3 days.61,62 However, Lee et al. reported one case of severe acute pancreatitis with possible necrosis on computed tomography that required total parenteral nutrition. The overall complication rate for EUS-guided pancreatic cyst FNA is between 1% and 6%.59–62 The type of cyst, size, presence of septations or mass, and same day endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography are not predictors of complications.62 Most complications do not require surgery.62 Pancreatic cysts can either be observed or resected depending on the benign or malignant nature, or malignant potential of the lesions. As early as 1993, EUS monitoring of pancreatic cyst every 6 months was performed on 82 patients with small (< 2 cm) asymptomatic pancreatic cysts. Of the 31 patients who completed 3 years of follow Axenfeld syndrome up, 26 (84%) were non-progressive. Only one patient’s cyst

progressed, and surgical intervention diagnosed a retention cyst.17 Subsequently, improvements in technology have provided much better resolution and image clarity, and thus, characterization of IPMN. Wakabayashi et al.18 followed up pathologically-proven IPMN. They found that main duct type tumors (n = 9) were histological adenomas or adenocarcinoma. For those with branch duct-type tumors showing mural nodules or a tumor diameter of 3 cm or more (n = 26), a high malignant potential was found in 25 of 26 patients (96%). Surgical resection should be considered for such patients. However, for the patients with tumors < 3 cm and no mural nodules (n = 23), 17 of 23 had no apparent progression on follow-up EUS. Okabayashi et al.19 studied the risk factors of malignancy in 23 patients who were diagnosed with IPMN.