The PSMS is a measure of activities of daily living, which assesses the degree of functional disability. It includes 8 items regarding the amount of assistance needed to complete everyday activities such as eating, bathing, and toileting. Items are scored “need no help”

(1), “need some help” (2), and “need help or can’t do alone” (3). A score of 12 or greater suggests clinically significant functional impairment. The CIRS is a summary of illnesses categorized into 13 independent body systems. Each system is rated by the patient’s physician on a 5-point scale of severity ranging from none (0) to extremely severe (4). Means of these assessments are shown in Table I. In general, this sample is nondepressed, cognitively Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical unimpaired, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and functionally able despite moderate to moderately severe physical illness. Table I. Means of measures of frailty and geriatric depression scale and correlations of measures with positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA). BMIC = Blessed Memory-InformationConcentration; CIRCS = Cumulative Illness Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Rating Scale; GDS = Geriatric Depression … Results Sample descriptive data and correlations with markers of frailty are shown in Table I As expected, GDS, CIRS,

PSMS, and Pain were negatively correlated with PA and positively correlated with NA (all P<0.001). Cognitive impairment was not correlated with either PA or NA in this sample. In addition, the correlation between PA and NA was r=-0.43 for this sample. However, among nondepressed, or euthymic persons, the correlation between PA and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical NA was r=-0.17, which suggests that much of the strength of the negative relationships between the two in the population as a whole can be attributed to their associations with clinical depression.

One-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were conducted to compare the means of PA and NA among cuthymics, dysphorics, and persons with major depression. PA was highest among persons with euthymia and lowest among persons experiencing major depression. NA was highest among persons with major depression and lowest among cuthymics (Table Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical II). PA was relatively stable from baseline to 1-year Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor follow-up (r=0.53) and 2-year follow-up (r=0.51) among euthymics. Table II. Comparison of means of positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) among euthymic, dysphoric, and major depressed persons. AI! P≤0.01 . enough Among persons with any depression, major or dysphoria, the correlation was r=0.48 at the 1-ycar follow-up and r=0.28 at the 2-year follow-up, indicating that PA was lower at follow-up in depressed persons. In contrast, NA was not stable over time among euthymics, whereas it appeared to be relatively stable in depressed persons. Stability correlations are shown in Table III. Table III. Stability correlations of positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) among euthymic and depressed persons from baseline to 1 -year and 2-year follow-ups.

In the longer term, other approaches to brain stimulation may become clinically viable

and eventually replace ECT Such a projection must be made with due caution. The epitaph of ECT has been written repeatedly over the past 50 years. Nevertheless, it remains one of the longest-standing, continuously used treatments in medicine. Research efforts over the next decade in the field of brain stimulation will be crucial in establishing how long ECT will continue to occupy this unique position. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Selected abbreviations and acronyms DBS deep brain stimulation ECT electroconvulsive therapy MST magnetic seizure therapy TMS transcranial magnetic stimulation VNS vagus nerve stimulation
Depression is WEEL inhibitor manufacturer sometimes described as the “common cold” of psychiatry It is certainly common, and it is also present most commonly in mild forms, which extends the analogy somewhat. However, in its most severe forms it is the major problem that may preoccupy any ill Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical patient- to the point where he or she may commit suicide. Indeed, a formal major

depressive episode can occur in association with virtually all the other psychiatric and physical diagnoses. This review will address primarily physical illnesses. Physical illness increases the risk of developing severe depressive illness. There are two broadly different mechanisms that may explain this, which are not mutually Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical exclusive. The first is the most obvious, probably the most common, and is usually described as having a psychological or cognitive mechanism. It may be understandable as the threat that any severe and/or chronic illness may pose to an individual’s sense of purpose and meaning in life. Thus, the illness may provide the life event or chronic difficulty that triggers a depressive episode in a vulnerable individual. Physical Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical illness may thereby be a component of the complex pathway that determines the emergence of depression. The mechanisms may be both genetic and nongenetic, and have been best teased out by twin studies, primarily

in women.1-3 Such an Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical association between depression and physical illness may be highly nonspecific and unbiological. However, this cannot be assumed axiomatically to be true. Indeed, all severe depression is in some sense biological, and some unexpected associations may be mediated by a biology that is related to both the physical illness and to the systems that support depressive reactions. Examples PD184352 (CI-1040) of the more specific association will be given below; they may turn out to be of particular etiological interest. In addition, major depression, but especially minor depression, dysthymia, and depressive symptoms merge with other manifestations of human distress, with which patients present to their doctors. Such somatic presentations test the conventional distinction between physical and mental disorder, and are a perennial source of controversy While it will not be possible to do the topic full justice, the key issues will be noticed.

Unlike testosterone, the primary male gonadal hormone, which gradually and moderately decreases with male aging,37 estrogen production in women ceases suddenly around the time of menopause.38 Indeed, JNK inhibitor research buy epidemiological evidence has linked the loss of estrogen with an increased risk for the development of AD, and suggested that Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical estrogen replacement would significantly decrease the incidence of AD (for reviews see39,40). Despite the majority of epidemiological and basic research that suggest beneficial actions

of estradiol, some clinical trials examining the role of hormone replacement therapy in the development of AD, including the Women’s Health Initiative (WHI), have provided conflicting

results.41–43 Finally, it has been suggested that women are at greater risk for dementia and AD simply because they Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical live longer, and thus more likely to develop age-related disorders. A support for this notion came from the Leisure World Cohort Study, which suggested that estrogen therapy is associated with longevity, rather than dementia.44 Genes To date, no clear evidence has shown an association between genetic factors and dementia in the oldest-old. This may seem at odds, since the genetic factors that are most consistently associated with dementia in younger elderly (particularly AD)45 and longevity46 are all related to a specific family of proteins—the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical lipoproteins. These genetic factors include: 1) the ε4 allele of apolipoprotein E (ApoE) gene that has been independently associated with increased risk of late-onset Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (age ≥ 65) AD47,48 and reduced chance of becoming a centenarian;49 and the genes for 2) microsomal transfer protein (mediates the rate-limiting step in lipoprotein synthesis); and 3) cholesteryl ester transfer protein (affects HDL and LDL particle size), which have been

associated with longevity.50,51 None of these genes were associated with dementia in the oldest-old. In fact, the presence of the ApoE ε4 allele seems Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to lose its significance in predicting found AD as age progresses.52 The lack of associations between dementia and lipoproteins in very old age add further evidence to the hypothesis that the oldest-old are likely to be biologically different from the younger-old. Physical activity In studies of younger elderly, physical activity has consistently been associated with decreased risk of dementia.53–56 A possible explanation is that physically active individuals are more resistant to adverse risk factor changes, which modulate the risk of dementia, such as diabetes or diabetes-like metabolic disorders (reviewed in57,58) and cardiovascular diseases (reviewed in 59,60). Other mechanisms may involve direct influences of physical activity on brain plasticity61 and structural and functional brain reserves.

28 This loss of culture and high rates of traumatic events may place Aboriginal individuals at increased risk for suicide, as well as CG resulting from traumatic loss and 5-FU clinical trial suicide bereavement. While little information is available on Aboriginal populations and CG, some authors have discussed the concept of a “soul wound” or historical trauma and their impact on health and grief. Duran et al discuss the

soul wound, and the symptoms that Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical sometimes accompany such trauma.29 For example, symptoms of pain, suffering, guilt, and psychological stress have been thought to reflect survivor syndrome, or outcomes resulting from colonialism.30 Brave Heart also argues that Aboriginal populations such as the Lakota (Teton Sioux) experience impaired grief, and that this grief results from massive cumulative traumas.30 It may be that impaired grief and CG share or reflect similar concepts and characteristics. Brave Heart defines impaired grief as resulting from the prohibition of indigenous spiritual practices, which inhibits the culturally Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical specific ways or modes of working through normative grief. This cultural bereavement can lead to poor health outcomes such as posttraumatic stress disorder and anxiety Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical disorders.31 Brave Heart also discusses the traditional bereavement or grief process of the Lakota, and highlights traditional mourning practices, including visible signs of grief, in that close relatives cut their hair to symbolize the emotional

pain of losing the loved one. Because the bereaved were identified by short hair, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical their community treated them respectfully and recognized the mourning process. During this time, spirit-keeping ceremonies are also conducted, enabling the grief process for a year after the death. “Releasing of the spirit” and “wiping of the tears” ceremonies are also held to help resolve grief and to welcome the bereaved into their community. Due to the effects of historical trauma, Brave Heart argues that the Lakota were not able to resolve their grief, and experienced impaired grief.30 While impaired and complicated grief may share similarities in that grief responses are complex, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical it is understandable how the prohibition of spiritual practices and high rates of traumatic events may place First Nations individuals at increased risk for poor health outcomes. Suicide rates are an important aminophylline and serious health outcome and public health issue that are linked to CG, and are extremely high for First Nations people. Suicide rates among First Nations individuals are between 3 and 6 times that of the general population.27 Canadian First Nations suicide rates are higher than in the general population in both the United States and Canada.25 In a population-based examination of the Province of Manitoba, individuals living in Northern communities (largely consisting of First Nations individuals) were also at increased likelihood for suicide and suicide attempts.

Since with 3DE we can obtain stereoscopic views of heart valve apparatus, 3DE findings have become pivotal to evaluate suitability for valve repair,60) provide surgical guidance, monitor

interventional procedures61) and to assess effectiveness of treatment.62) Overcoming the necessity of mental reconstruction of valve anatomy from tomographic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical views, the surgeon and the echocardiographer share a common and reproducible view, allowing a better planning of patient’s management. Mitral valve Mitral valve is a complex apparatus requiring anatomic integrity of its components and their correct functional relationship during the cardiac cycle for properly functioning. Due to the complex mitral annulus shape, a tomographic imaging modality like 2DE has several limitations in displaying the mitral valve morphology and geometry, which can be overcome by the volumetric display by 3DE. The unique ability of 3DE to display en-face the atrio-ventricular valves both from the atrium Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical or ventricle (Fig. 4 and ​and15)15) allows a better anatomical definition of mitral apparatus and its function in relation to the surrounding cardiac structures.63) Fig. 15 Rheumatic mitral

stenosis. Volume rendering display from the left ventricular (A) and atrial (B) perspectives. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical The cut plane shown in A has been optimized to be perpendicular to the direction of the orifice to obtain an accurate orifice area planimetry. … Mitral stenosis To identify the best therapeutic strategy in patients with rheumatic mitral valve stenosis, clinical data and accurate measurements of mitral valve area are needed. Doppler based methods are Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical heavily influenced by cardiac rhythm, haemodynamic status and angle of incidence. Accordingly, methods based on direct planimetry of the anatomical

valve orifice should be more accurate. However, direct planimetry of mitral valve area from 2DE images has two major limitations: i. frequent overestimation of valve orifice area because the orientation of the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 2D view used to trace the orifice contour is fixed and seldom orthogonal to the direction of the mitral funnel; ii. there is no anatomical landmark that can be used to ensure that the short-axis view used to trace the orifice is the one with the smallest area. 3DE has overcome these limitations, as the echocardiographer may easily crop the 3D data set to identify the correct orientation and position of also the cut plane on which to trace the area of the stenotic valve. 3DE visualization of the actual mitral stenotic orifice can be accomplished either from the LV side or the left atrial side (Fig. 16). Severity of stenosis, extent of leaflet thickening and commissural fusion, as well visualization length and fusion degree of chordae tendineae can be visualized and assessed by 3DE. DZNeP Compared to all other echo Doppler methods for assessing residual mitral valve orifice area, 3DE has shown the best agreement with invasive methods.

Acknowledgments IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 were provided by Insmed Incorporation. This work was partly supported by the Competitive research funding (EVO) of Kuopio University Hospital, Finland, and Finnish

Academy (Grant no. 127138). The authors also want to thank D. Jarmo Jääskeläinen for his scientific comments of clinical use of IGF-1.

The field of drug delivery system (DDS) utilizing polymeric carrier, which covalently conjugates molecule of interest, plays an important role in modern therapeutics [1, 2]. Such polymer-based drug entities are now termed as “polymer therapeutics” and include nanomedicine class that has become immensely critical in recent years [3–5]. The objectives for Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical designing a polymer therapeutics are primarily to improve the potential of the respective drug by (i) enhancing water solubility, particularly Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical relevant for some drugs with low aqueous solubility, (ii) stability against degrading enzymes or reduced uptake by reticulo-endothelial system (RES), and (iii) targeted delivery of drugs to specific sites of action Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in the body [1, 6]. Poly(ethyleneglycol)

(PEG) is the most commonly used nonionic polymer in the field of polymer-based drug delivery [1]. Due to high aqueous solubility, PEG polymer is considered as a versatile candidate for the prodrug conjugation. Selleck AR-A014418 Ringdorf was the first to propose the rational model for pharmacologically active polymers in 1975 [7]. An ideal prodrug model typically consists of multiple components (Figure 1): Figure 1 Schematic presentation PEG-based prodrug with targeting agent. polymer as a carrier; drug, peptide, or protein as a biological active component; spacer molecule or targeting moiety. PEGylation, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the covalent attachment of PEG to molecules of interest, has become a well-established prodrug delivery system [8, 9]. PEGylation was first reported by Davies and Abuchowski in the 1970s for albumin and catalase modification. Since then the procedure of PEGylation has been broadened and developed thereafter tremendously Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical [10–16]. The remarkable properties

of the biologically inert (biocompatible) PEG polymer derive from its hydrophilicity Suplatast tosilate and flexibility. PEG is also considered to be somewhat hydrophobic due to its solubility in many organic solvents. Most used PEGs for prodrug modification are either monomethoxy PEG or dihydroxyl PEG (Figure 2) [7]. Figure 2 Molecular structure of monomethoxy PEG. Typically, most of the PEG-based prodrugs have been developed for the delivery of anticancer agents such as paclitaxel, methotrexate, and cisplatin. High-molecular-weight prodrugs containing cytotoxic components have been developed to decrease peripheral side effects and to obtain a more specific administration of the drugs to the cancerous tissues [17].

The mechanisms that underlie these benefits have been explored using animal models, including transgenic models of AD and the influence of interventions has been showed. Accumulating research shows that physical

activity reinstates hippocampal function by enhancing the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and other growth factors that promote neurogenesis, angiogenesis, and synaptic plasticity. In addition, several studies have found that Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical physical activity counteracts age- and AD-associated declines in mitochondrial and immune system function. A growing body of evidence also suggests that exercise interventions hold the potential to reduce the pathological features associated with AD. Taken together, animal and human studies indicate that exercise provides a powerful stimulus that can counter the molecular changes that underlie the progressive loss of hippocampal function in advanced age.75,76 So even if spontaneous neurological disease brain reorganization is reduced in the elderly, both clinical and basic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical science data Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical demonstrate that intervention has a clinical and a biological positive effect. Some other examples can be found with

cognitive enrichment protocols. Aging is a major co-risk factor in many neurodegenerative diseases. Cognitive enrichment positively affects the structural selleck products plasticity of the aging brain. The effects of a set of 6month structured multimodal activities (Combination Training; CT) on cognitive performances, functional connectivity, and cortical thickness Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical were evaluated in a group of healthy elderly individuals.77 In this study combination training improves cognitive/occupational

performances and reorganizes functional connectivity. Intriguingly, individuals responding to CT showed specific dopamine-related genotypes. The findings support the idea that exposure to a set of structured multimodal activities can be an effective strategy to counteract aging-related cognitive decline and also indicate that significant capability of functional Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and structural changes are maintained in the elderly. Exercise training consequences on brain structure have also been investigated using neuroimaging tools. Liu Ambrose et al74 have shown that 12 months very of twice-weekly resistance training led to functional changes in two regions of cortex previously associated with response inhibition processes—the anterior portion of the left middle temporal gyrus and the left anterior insula extending into lateral orbital frontal cortex—in community-dwelling senior women. These hemodynamic effects co-occurred with improved task performance. Although normal aging is associated with morphological modifications and decline of cerebral functions, brain plasticity is at least partially preserved in elderly individuals and can be modulated by external intervention like exercise or cognitive stimulation.

Not controversial is the fact that similar to other

animals, humans have circadian rhythms that are primarily regulated by the light/dark cycle.30,33-38 The endogenous melatonin selleck chemical profile as a marker for circadian phase position In humans, the melatonin profile is the most reliable marker for circadian phase (Figure 2).39-41 The time that melatonin levels rise appears to be a useful phase maker. The melatonin onset (MO) is a clearly demarcated event. It can be operationally defined in a number of ways, some of which use a threshold Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (2 pg/mL, 10 pg/mL, etc), which appears as a subscript in the acronym.42 In order to minimize the acute suppressant effect of light, plasma samples are collected under dim light (optimally, less than 30 lux). Therefore, in sighted people this marker is called the dim light melatonin onset Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (DLMO).43 The plasma DLMO10 occurs on average about 14 h after waketime in entrained, sighted people, and the DLMO2 occurs about 1 h earlier.13,44,45 Figure 2. Relationship between the endogenous melatonin Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical profile, the melatonin phase response curve (PRC), and the sleep/wake cycle. MO, melatonin onset; BFR, blind free-runner; CT, circadian time. Adapted from reference 41: Lewy AJ, Bauer VK, Hasler BP, Kendall … The light zeitgeber (German for time-giver, or time cue) first occurs each day at waketime.46 In the circadian literature, this is called zeitgeber time 0 (ZT 0).

(Sometimes the term circadian time [CT]

is used under certain circumstances; although they are technically different, ZT and CT will be used interchangeably in this monograph, in order to minimize confusion on the part of readers who are not experts in chronobiology.) As mentioned above, the average CT or ZT of the plasma DLMO10 is 14 h in entrained, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical sighted people. The DLMO ZT also describes the relationship between the circadian rhythms that are tightly coupled to the SCN (such as melatonin) and those that are more loosely coupled (such as the sleep/wake cycle, for example, waketime). Therefore, any mismatch Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in circadian rhythms will be reflected in a ZT that differs from the 14-h standard. The light PRC Light’s phase-shifting effects on circadian rhythms can be explained by a phase response curve (PRC). Its essential features are that light exposure in the morning causes a phase advance (shift to an earlier time) and that light exposure in the evening causes a phase delay (shift either to a later time).33,36,47 In addition, maximal phase shifts occur in the middle of the night, and minimal phase shifts occur during the middle of the day.48-51 PRCs are usually plotted according to CT. The break points that separate advance and delay responses for the light. PRC are 12 h apart: they occur at CT 6 and CT 18. Converting to clock time for an individual who habitually awakens at 7.00 am, these are 1.00 pm and 1.00 am, respectively. With regard to the light.

Norepinephrine is elevated by modafinil in the prefrontal cortex and rostromedial hypothalamus [de Saint Hilaire et al. 2001]. It potentiates the norepinephrine-induced inhibition of sleep-promoting neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus [Gallopin et al. 2004]. Cognitive and behavioural effects of modafinil are likely to be primarily a function of changes in monoamine activity. Arousal and activity promoting effects of modafinil are probably

largely due to its effects on catecholamine systems [Minzenberg and Carter, 2008]. Modafinil addition to antipsychotic treatment could ameliorate cognitive performance [Turner et al. 2004], inactiveness [Farrow et al. 2006] and induce Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical weight reduction [Henderson et al. 2005]. By increasing activity, modafinil could decrease the bodyweight of schizophrenia patients. Weight gain often observed in schizophrenic patients is most probably due to the side effects of antipsychotic drugs and is a risk factor for the development of metabolic syndrome [Meyer et al. 2008]. If modafinil is effective in all Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of these respects, this would imply a great health benefit Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for many patients treated with antipsychotics. Recently an isomer

of modafinil, armodafinil, has also been studied in patients with schizophrenia [Kane et al. 2010]. Compared with modafinil, armodafinil produces higher plasma concentrations, whereas elimination half-life is comparable [Darwish et al. 2010]. In this paper we review all of the available literature to investigate whether modafinil and armodafinil are able to enhance cognitive function, attenuate fatigue, enhance activity and LY2157299 in vitro reduce weight in patients with schizophrenia treated with antipsychotic drugs. In addition, for clinical Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical practice, doses and tolerability are discussed. Methods Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical A literature search was performed in Pubmed® (National Library of Medicine) and Embase Psychiatry® (Winspirs) from 1972 to March 2011 with the following search terms:

((modafinil) OR (armodafinil)) AND (schizophrenia) in the title and/or abstract. References cited in the papers were also checked for relevant articles. The inclusion criterion was that the article covered the subject of modafinil or armodafinil addition in schizophrenia. We excluded reviews, case reports and studies TCL that did not meet the inclusion criteria. Results A total of 52 papers were found, of which 37 were excluded. Of the excluded articles 36 did not meet the inclusion criteria and 1 article was excluded because modafinil was administered to patients with diverse, but not separately presented, psychiatric disorders. So, 15 articles were included in this review: 5 were randomized placebo-controlled trials (RCTs), 5 were crossover RCTs, 1 was a cohort study and 4 were animal studies (the human trials are presented in Tables 1 and ​and22). Table 1.

The latter probes are also capable to provide single-beat full-volume acquisition, as well as real-time 3D color Doppler imaging (Fig. 1). Fig. 1 Different acquisition modalities available with three-dimensional echocardiography: A: Zoom mode; it can acquired either single-beat (to encompass a specific region or structures like en-face valve display without the need of cropping) or multi-beat to … 3DE is the only imaging technique based

on volumetric scanning able to show moving structures in the beating Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical heart, in contrast to cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) and computed tomography, which are based on post-acquisition 3D reconstruction from multiple tomographic images and displaying only 3D rendered snapshots. At present two different methods for 3D

data acquisition are available: “real-time” (or “live” 3D mode) and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical multi-beat 3D mode (Fig. 2). In the real-time mode, a thin sector of a pyramidal 3D volume data set is obtained and visualized live, beat after beat as during 2D scanning. Imaging is usually available in several fashions, as narrow volume, zoom, wide-angle (full-volume) and color-Doppler modalities. Heart dynamics is shown in a realistic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical way, with instantaneous Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical on-line volume rendered reconstruction. It allows fast acquisition from a single acoustic view of dynamic pyramidal data

structures that can encompass the entire heart without the need of reference system, electrocardiogram (ECG) and respiratory gating. Real-time imaging is time-saving both for data acquisition and analysis. Although this acquisition mode overcomes rhythm disturbances or respiratory motion limitations, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical it still suffers of relatively poor temporal and spatial resolution. Fig. 2 Schematic representation of two-dimensional (i.e. tomographic; A) and single-beat three-dimensional (i.e. volumetric; B) of the left ventricular short-axis at mitral valve level. Volumetric rendering displays many more details tuclazepam and allow better appreciation … Conversely, multi-beat acquisition is realized through sequential acquisitions of narrow smaller volumes obtained from several ECG-gated http://www.selleckchem.com/products/fg-4592.html consecutive heart cycles (from 2 to 6) that are subsequently stitched together to create a single volumetric data set. It provides large data sets with high temporal and spatial resolution, but more prone to artifacts due to patient or respiratory motion or irregular cardiac rhythms. The most appropriate acquisition mode for the specific clinical setting will be chosen in each individual case (Fig. 2).