IgA levels in serum induced by i.n. immunization were around one to two orders of magnitude higher than those induced by i.d. immunization, suggesting that the NP themselves do not inherently drive IgA switching. We believe it is more likely that the route of immunization has an important role at inducing serum IgA as has been previously suggested [39] and [40]. selleck We speculate that gp140-specific IgA plasma cells induced in the nasal cavity may home to spleen or bone marrow. It is worth noting

that levels of gp140-specific IgG and IgA were also enhanced in the nasal cavity. This suggests that wax NP may also have utility for delivering of immunogens against respiratory pathogens. M-cells of NALT are thought to play an important role in the uptake of NP in rodents and humans and are absent in vaginal and rectal mucosa [41], [42] and [43]. The nasal route has been extensively studied not only for vaccination purposes [44], [45], [46] and [47] but also for the delivery of drugs [48], and NP have been used nasally to induce immune responses to TT this website [49] and HIV [50]. Induction of systemic and mucosal immune responses to HIV after nasal immunization of mice [51] and [52], guinea pigs [51] and macaques [5] with HIV-gp120 Ag has been described previously.

In the latter, serum and vaginal Ab responses were induced after nasal immunization only when followed by one or two intramuscular boosts. These levels were highly enhanced in vagina after challenge with SHIV, suggesting that the nasal priming induced effective memory responses at mucosal level [5]. In our mouse model, three nasal immunizations were enough to induce high levels of IgG and IgA in serum and vagina. It remains to be confirmed whether this immunization protocol with NP will work similarly in macaques or humans, or whether these Abs would be neutralizing.

Endonuclease Therefore, further studies are warranted that assess homologous and heterologous immunization protocols to determine the feasibility of using these NP, as effective delivery systems of HIV Ags, in the development of mucosal vaccination in humans. Particle Science Inc has IP rights and economical interests in carnauba wax based nanoparticles mentioned in this article. This work was funded by a grant to SGUL by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, under the Grand Challenges in Global Health Initiative. We are indebted to the Fondation Dormeur for funding of equipment used in the course of this study. We thank Professors Ralf Wagner and Hans Wolf, University of Regensburg and GENEART AG for the CN54-expressing plasmid. We thank Simon Jeffs, Sueli Vieira and Saba Hussein for work on gp140 cloning and expression. CN54-gp140 used in this study was produced under contract by Polymun Scientific GmbH. Griet Van Roey is supported by a EUROPRISE studentship funded by the European Union.

Une synthèse des recommandations actuelles concernant l’activité sexuelle chez les patients cardiaques est disponible en complément électronique. La réadaptation cardiaque permet d’optimiser la prévention secondaire et la prise en charge des facteurs de risque, et l’activité physique a des effets favorables sur la maladie cardiovasculaire elle-même ainsi que sur la capacité physique et donc la diminution des risques cardiovasculaires lors de l’activité sexuelle. Un des points absolument essentiel dans les relations entre patient et médecin, au regard de l’activité sexuelle, est de pouvoir

échanger sur le sujet. En effet, les patients, très souvent, ne décrivent pas leur problème d’activité sexuelle à leur médecin ou à leur cardiologue. Dans une série concernant 1455 hommes de 55 à 87 ans [37] and [38]

aux États-Unis, seuls 38 % des patients ayant des troubles de la fonction sexuelle selleck kinase inhibitor ont évoqué Selleck BIBW2992 le sujet avec leur médecin au-delà de l’âge de 50 ans. Dans cette série, près de 15 % des hommes prenaient des médicaments pour leur dysfonction érectile non prescrits par leur médecin. Une petite série concernant un faible nombre d’hommes et de femmes apportent néanmoins un éclairage intéressant sur cette dimension [39]. L’activité sexuelle la plus fréquemment pratiquée dans cette série concernant des patients de plus de 70 ans était pour les hommes des relations sexuelles classiques et pour les femmes la masturbation. Les troubles de la fonction sexuelle rapportés étaient pour les hommes principalement la dysfonction érectile et pour les femmes un manque de désir ou d’intérêt pour l’activité sexuelle. Parmi les sujets ayant des troubles de la fonction sexuelle, seuls 4 % des femmes et 36 % des hommes ont pris l’initiative d’évoquer leurs before difficultés avec leur médecin. Le plus grave est que la discussion sur le sujet n’a été initiée par le médecin lui-même que pour 7 % des femmes et 32 % des hommes,

alors même que, très souvent, les patients souhaitent que ce soit le médecin qui prenne l’initiative (32 % des femmes et 86 % des hommes). On voit bien ici le déficit de communication sur ce sujet et c’est sans doute au médecin de prendre l’initiative et d’évoquer, à titre systématique, les éventuels problèmes de fonction sexuelle chez les patients cardiaques. L’activité sexuelle est donc l’un des éléments essentiel de la qualité de vie chez les patients cardiaques. Celle-ci est fréquemment altérée chez les hommes dans la mesure où la prévalence de la dysfonction érectile est élevée et augmente avec l’âge, l’élément cardinal étant la dysfonction endothéliale fortement liée aux facteurs de risque cardiovasculaires et à l’athérome. Une prise en charge pluridisciplinaire au sein d’une équipe comportant psychologue et urologue est indispensable car la dimension psychologique est souvent ici essentielle.

He was accepted as a resident in the Mayo Foundation and Graduate School at the University of Minnesota, selleckchem serving from 1957 to 1961, and he became board certified in Anatomic and Clinical Pathology. Dr. Titus earned a Ph.D., degree in pathology from the University of Minnesota, Mayo Graduate School of Medicine in 1962 (under the mentorship of Jesse E. Edwards, M.D.). He served as Associate Professor of Pathology and as a consultant in pathology at the Mayo Graduate School of Medicine from 1961 to 1972 and became a professor there in 1972. He was also coordinator of the Pathology

Training Programs from 1964 to 1972. In 1972, he was recruited to The Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, TX, to become the W.L. Moody, Jr., Professor and Chairman of the Department of Pathology, a position that he held until 1987. He served concurrently as Chief of the Pathology Service at The Methodist Hospital and Pathologist-In-Chief of the Harris County Hospital District. In 1987, upon the retirement of Dr. Jesse E. Edwards from the Registry of Cardiovascular Diseases United Hospital, St. Paul,

MN, which houses a collection of more than 20,000 heart specimens and 85,000 photographic slides, Dr. Titus was recruited as the second director. He also was a Professor of Pathology Selleck Palbociclib on the University of Minnesota Medical School faculty. During his Cytidine deaminase time at the Registry, he continued to serve as Adjunct Professor at the Baylor College of Medicine. Although Dr. Titus retired in 2004, he continued to serve as senior consultant to the Jesse E. Edwards Registry of Cardiovascular Disease. Dr. Titus made many contributions to our discipline, its knowledge base, and the mentorship of its participants.

He fostered an early understanding of the normal AV conduction system, sudden cardiac death, the surgical anatomy of congenital heart disease. He published studies on how the AV conduction system was distorted in congenital heart disease and particularly in septal defects, and, in collaboration with cardiac surgical pioneers and other pathologists, he contributed to the development of the surgical and catheter-based repair of congenital heart disease and the pathological anatomy of both valvular heart disease and valve replacement by homograft and prosthetic valves. With pathologists, he collaborated on the earliest studies of the early diagnosis of myocardial infarction by the triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) macroscopic staining technique and the pathology of coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Dr. Titus was instrumental in the founding of the Society for Cardiovascular Pathology (SCVP) in 1985 and served on and as an enthusiastic and wise advisor to its Executive Council for many years. In 1993, Dr.

All authors have none to declare. The authors are thankful to Bioplus, Banglore for providing LDN-193189 Moxifloxacin gift sample, and Management of Nirmala College of Pharmacy, Mangalgiri for their constant support and encouragement. “
“Heterocyclic compounds containing nitrogen and sulphur have considerably a lot of attention due to wide

application of pharmacological activity. Pyrimidine and their derivatives play the vital role in the field of drugs and agricultural chemicals. Pyrimidine could be a basic nucleus in DNA & RNA; it is associated with various biological activities.1 The synthesis of substituted Pyrimidine and lot of review has reported.2 and 3 Pyrimidine” and their derivatives are popular in inorganic synthetic

chemistry. buy Ivacaftor Pyrimidine does not exist in nature however with in the form of its different derivatives, and are widely distributed. Pyrimidine derivatives are of interest due to their pharmacological properties such as antitumor,4, 5, 6 and 7 antiviral,8 antifungal, anticancer,9 antibcteria,10 antiinflammator,11, 12, 13 and 14 analgesic,15 antagonist,16 and 17 antifolate,18 antimicrobial,19 anti-HIV,20 atiproliferative,21 antiplatelet,22 antithrombotic,22 antifilarial23 activities, etc. Moreover benzothiazole24, 25 and 26 is alternative vital pharmacodynamic heterocyclic nuclei that once incorporated in several heterocyclic templates have currently been possess wide spectrum of activities. The literature study reveals that both Pyrimidine and benzothiazole Urease are a significant pharmacophore and exhibits outstanding biological activities. Encourage by these observation, we synthesized a new series of Pyrimidine derivatives by incorporating the benzothiazole moiety with the hope of obtaining better antimicrobial activity agent. All the synthesized compounds have been screened for their antimicrobial activities. Laboratory chemicals were provided by Rankem India Ltd. and Ficher Scientific Ltd. Melting points were determined by the open tube capillary method and are not correct. The purity of the compounds was determined by thin layer chromatography

(TLC) plates (silica gel G) in the solvent system toluene:ethyl acetate (7.5:2.5). The spots were observed by exposure to iodine Vapours or by UV light. The IR spectra were received by Perkin–Elmer 1720 FT-IR spectrometer (KBr pellets). The H NMR &13 C NMR spectra were obtained by Bruker Advance II 400 spectrometer using TMS because the internal standard in CDCl3. Elemental analysis of the new synthesized compounds were obtained by Carlo Erba 1108 analyzer. The synthesis of the compounds as per the following Scheme 1 given below. The solution of 3-phenoxy benzaldehyde (0.01 mol.) and 4-methoxyacetophenone (0.01 mol.) in ethyl alcohol (25 ml) Cooled at 5–10 °C and was mixed with aqueous sodium _hydroxide (70%, 5 ml) drop wise with continuous stirring. The reaction mixture was again stirred for 2 h.

At 18 months, the premature and full-term infants had similar humoral and cellular immune responses to the tetanus booster vaccine. Moreover, breastfeeding increased the odds of optimal protective antibody level against tetanus at 15 months of age and raised levels of antibodies concentration following the tetanus booster vaccine. The authors acknowledge Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP), Brazil, for research support (# 06/51865-8 and # 09/14351-4). The authors also acknowledge Juliana Pires and Mônica Lopes for laboratorial analysis of the patients included in the study, and Dra. Célia Cristina

Pereira Bortolleto from Health Secretary of Suzano Municipality and professionals from Unidade Básica de Saúde NLG919 Pref. Alberto Nunes Martins, Suzano, for IWR-1 research buy their support. Support statement: This study was funded by Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP), Brazil: 06/51865-8 and 09/14351-4. Conflict of interest: None to declare. “
“Ectoparasitism of cattle by the southern cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus, inflicts severe economic

losses to the livestock industry. Cattle productivity is undermined by the direct effects of ectoparasitism and indirectly by the role R. microplus plays as vector of the infectious agents causing bovine babesiosis and anaplasmosis [1] and [2]. The control of R. microplus is achieved mainly through the use of chemical acaricides [3]. However, chemical acaricides have not been utilized judiciously. This has led to the development of acaricide resistance among populations of R. microplus [4] and [5]. Vaccinating cattle with tick molecules formulated as antigens to elicit a protective immune response is a strategy proven useful for the integrated

control of cattle ticks [7], [10] and [36]. The benefits of using anti-tick vaccines as part of an integrated control program include a reduction in the use of acaricides, extending the useful life of acaricides by delaying the onset of resistance, reducing the incidence of R. microplus-borne diseases, and decreased production Rolziracetam costs [6], [8] and [9]. The only tick molecule currently developed and marketed as a component of an anti-tick vaccine is Bm86 from R. microplus. Bm86 is a glycoprotein expressed in eggs a few days after oviposition, unfed and blood-fed larvae, nymphs, adult males, and in the ovaries of partially engorged adult females [11]. The Bm86 gene appeared to be down-regulated in the ovaries of ticks feeding on cattle infected with B. bovis [12]. Anti-tick vaccine products based on the recombinant version of Bm86 (rBm86) were registered in Australia under the trade name TickGARD®, and in Cuba as Gavac® in the 1990s [13] and [36]. The rBm86-based vaccines are highly efficacious against R.

Osteoarthritis is a leading cause of musculoskeletal pain and disability. The most recent Global Burden of Diseases study, published in The Lancet in 2012, found that, of

the musculoskeletal conditions, the burden associated with Quizartinib osteoarthritis is amongst the most rapidly increasing ( Vos et al 2012). Hip osteoarthritis is extremely debilitating for affected individuals. Pain is a dominant symptom, becoming persistent and more limiting as disease progresses. Patients with hip osteoarthritis also report difficulty with functional activities such as walking, driving, stair-climbing, gardening, and housekeeping ( Guccione et al 1994) as well as higher levels of anxiety and depression ( Murphy et al 2012). Work productivity is affected with greater absenteeism, while fatigue and sleep problems are common ( Murphy et al 2011). Furthermore, people with osteoarthritis typically suffer from a range of co-morbid diseases that further increases their likelihood of poor physical function ( Guh et al 2009). Hip osteoarthritis

imposes a substantial economic burden, with most costs related to a range of conservative and surgical treatments, lost productivity, and substantial loss of quality of life (Dibonaventura et al 2011). In particular, rates of costly hip joint replacement surgery for advanced disease are increasing including a shift in the demographic of recipients to younger patients (Australian Orthopaedic Association National Joint Replacement Registry 2012, Ravi et INCB018424 ic50 al 2012). Clearly hip osteoarthritis

TCL is associated with considerable individual and societal burden and, given that there is currently no cure for the disease, treatments that reduce symptoms and slow functional decline are needed. The development of hip osteoarthritis results from a combination of local joint-specific factors that increase load across the joint acting in the context of factors that increase systemic susceptibility (Figure 1). Age is a well-established risk factor for hip osteoarthritis as are developmental disorders such as congenital hip dislocation, slipped capital femoral epiphysis, Perthes disease, and hip dysplasia (Harris-Hayes and Royer 2011). More recently, femoroacetabular impingement, which refers to friction between the proximal femur and acetabular rim due to abnormal hip morphology and is seen in younger active individuals, has been implicated as increasing the risk of hip osteoarthritis (Harris-Hayes and Royer 2011). Caucasians appear to have a higher prevalence of hip osteoarthritis compared to Asian, African, and East Indian populations. Albeit based on limited or inconsistent evidence, hip osteoarthritis also appears to be associated with obesity, occupations involving heavy lifting and farming, high volume and intensity of training particularly in impact sports, and leg length discrepancy (Suri et al 2012).

The growth inhibition selleck inhibitor area on agar plate was measured. The FTIR studies (Fig. 1) and DSC analysis

(Fig. 2) confirmed the absence of any chemical interaction between the drug and the polymer. Macroscopical features revealed that the drug was dissolved in the polymer matrix rather than dispersing. The physical properties such as thickness, uniformity of weight, percentage moisture loss, tensile strength, folding endurance, content uniformity, surface pH were given in Table 2. The fabricated films showed good film forming properties and reproducibility. The films were thin, flexible, elastic and smooth. Scanning electron microscopy pictures showed that the upper surface of plain films was smooth while the upper surface of drug loaded films was rough suggesting that the drug was dispersed rather than

dissolved in the polymer solution prior to film formation. Sodium citrate concentration, pH and cross linking time had little effect on the surface morphology of citrate/chitosan films. The cross section of the citrate/chitosan films was very integral and dense. However, all the films were yellowish cream in colour, with the colour deepening and film texture becoming tenderer with increase in crosslinking concentration and time. The SEM photographic pictures of the film were shown in Fig. 3. Table 2 shows the mean thickness of the films prepared at varying combinations of crosslinking concentration PARP phosphorylation and time. The results show that there was no significant difference between the films in terms of film thickness. The thickness of all the films Parvulin ranges from 204.3 to 218.43. Weights of all the formulations were in the range of 19.8–23. This indicated that

all the films were uniform in weight. The folding endurance values of all the films were in the range of 295–300. It indicated that all the formulations had ideal properties. The pH of all the formulations was found to have between 7.1 and 7.48. The surface pH of all films was found to be neutral and hence no periodontal pocket irritation is expected. Percentage moisture loss values range from 1.52 to 2.18. These studies observed that formulation F1 showed maximum moisture loss and F 12 showed a minimum moisture loss because on more crosslinking the film becomes more tenderer and there will be less moisture loss. The tensile strength values of the films ranged from 20.16 to 28.7 kg/cm2. This is because the longer the crosslinking time results in more tender films. The reduction in tensile strength values was observed on more crosslinking time and more concentration of crosslinking agent. The content of drug in all the films range 95.34–96.45. This indicated that the drug is uniformly distributed in all the formulations. F5 showed highest content uniformity where as F12 showed less content uniformity. The films were studied for stability studies for 1 month and there were no changes in physical parameters. From Fig.

“
“Les relais anticoagulants sont une situation à risque embolique et hémorragique. Une évaluation des attitudes thérapeutiques des médecins généralistes pour la gestion des périodes encadrant un geste invasif ou opératoire. “
“Depuis quelques années ont été développées dans la fibrillation atriale de nouvelles molécules, alternatives aux anti-vitamines K dans la prévention des accidents thromboemboliques artériels chez les sujets à risque. Les nouveaux anticoagulants oraux (NACO), aussi selleck chemicals appelés anti-thrombotiques directs, ont pour avantage de dispenser de surveiller l’INR, du fait d’une moindre variabilité interindividuelle par rapport aux anti-vitamines K (AVK). Cependant, l’erreur de prescription, en termes

d’indication ou de posologie, l’interaction médicamenteuse

ou le défaut d’éducation thérapeutique n’a pas disparu pour autant. Le risque hémorragique ou thrombotique est toujours présent chez les patients sous NACO. Les effets indésirables des anticoagulants ont été et seront toujours redoutés par les patients et les praticiens, d’autant plus dans le contexte actuel de méfiance des patients vis-à-vis des nouvelles molécules commercialisées par les firmes pharmaceutiques. Ainsi, il est de notre devoir Cabozantinib molecular weight de savoir prescrire ces nouvelles molécules, de connaître leurs avantages comme leurs inconvénients, et surtout leurs limites. La dispense de surveillance d’INR ne doit pas se transformer en une absence de surveillance du patient. Cette mise au point passe en revue les situations à risque d’accident,

aux deux extrémités du spectre de la fenêtre thérapeutique afin d’éviter les hémorragies graves et les accidents thromboemboliques sous traitement. Les trois nouvelles molécules actuellement disponibles en France et en Europe – dabigatran, rivaroxaban et apixaban – seront étudiées en profondeur, avec un complément d’information pour l’edoxaban, qui n’a pas encore obtenu l’autorisation de mise sur le marché à ce jour dans cette indication. La fibrillation atriale est une cause majeure de mortalité et de morbidité. Elle est responsable de la formation de thrombus dans l’auricule gauche, dont Astemizole l’embolisation peut entraîner des accidents vasculaires cérébraux, de conséquence gravissime, en termes de mortalité ou de handicap. C’est une affection fréquente, qui croît en même temps que le vieillissement de la population, atteignant 1 à 2 % de la population générale, et 5 à 15 % de la population de plus de 80 ans. La fibrillation atriale multiplie le taux d’incidence d’accident vasculaire cérébral (AVC) par 5, par rapport à la population générale [1]. Les AVK sont le traitement de référence pour la prévention des complications thromboemboliques de la fibrillation atriale. Ils ont montré une réduction relative du risque d’AVC de 64 % par rapport au placebo, ce qui équivaut à une réduction absolue annuelle du risque d’AVC de 2,7 % [2].

Results from our simulations suggest that vaccines effective against only 3 out of 4 circulating serotypes can lead to reductions even in scenarios where the serotype with low or zero efficacy (in this case DENV-2) is more pathogenic, more transmissible or experiences greater infectiousness enhancement. These findings indicate that vaccines effective against only three serotypes may have positive impacts at the population level, even under some of the adverse scenarios that led to recommendations to focus on the development of tetravalent dengue vaccines [26]. These results provide insight into the impact that competition between serotypes may have

on the overall efficacy of partially Roxadustat purchase effective vaccines and are consistent with previously published work [27]. Assuming that individuals can only undergo up to two infections, in hyperendemic settings (where 2 or more serotypes circulate) partially effective vaccines can lead to a decrease in competition

and increased transmission of serotypes for which the vaccine has low efficacy. The overall reduction in the number of clinical cases will depend on the pathogenicity of the serotypes that benefit from this reduced competition. Our results also show that vaccination might lead to a shift in the mean-age of cases toward younger age groups. If vaccine induced immunity enhances severity of infections among those that experience infection, vaccinating young immunologically naive children might predispose

them to clinically apparent disease earlier in life. This result might have important implications since severe dengue manifestations (dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome) are thought www.selleckchem.com/products/ldk378.html to be more frequent and severe among infants and young children [28]. Finally, our results indicate that direct and indirect effects of a vaccine could differ, potentially resulting in non-vaccinees in a highly vaccinated population experiencing the greatest reductions in cumulative incidence of clinically apparent dengue. Much of this effect is dictated by the immunopathogenic effects of vaccine derived immunity that we assumed, and would not be observed if vaccine immunity conferred protection against clinical disease. While in all of these instances the cumulative incidence in vaccinees was lower than what it would have been SB-3CT in the absence of vaccine, and the overall population effects were positive, this finding raises issues about the relevance of individual versus population protection. The use of incentives to promote vaccination may be used to manage expectation regarding specific benefits of vaccination vs. non-vaccination under different vaccination coverages [29] and [30]. Two other efforts have recently estimated the potential impact of a dengue vaccine [21] and [22]. Neither of these papers addresses the potential impact of vaccines that differ in their efficacy by serotype, a key feature of the vaccine reported by Sabchaereon et al. [1].

, 2008). Like humans, animals vary in their individual behavioural responses to stress such that stress paradigms can produce cohorts of animals that can be

classified as either stress-susceptible or stress-resilient, depending upon their behavioural response to stress (Krishnan et al., 2007 and Feder et al., 2009). For example, chronic stress in susceptible rodents can induce depression-like behaviours such as anhedonia and social withdrawal, while such behaviours are not induced in resilient animals (Krishnan et al., 2007 and Willner, 1997). Thus, animals can be segregated selleck chemicals into subgroups of stress-resilient and stress-susceptible animals in an effort to identify the neurobiological mechanisms underlying stress resilience (Jayatissa et al., 2006, Blugeot et al., 2011, Strekalova et al., 2004 and Wood et al., 2010). Interestingly, this variation in the stress response has been linked to hippocampal volumes whereby resilient animals exhibit increase hippocampal volume (by 4%), even after stress, while susceptible animals exhibit decreases in volume (by 1%) (Tse et al., 2014), findings which parallel the volumetric losses in the hippocampus of individuals with depression or PTSD (Sheline et al., 1996 and Felmingham et al., 2009), both of which

are stress-related disorders. However, while many studies have investigated the effects of stress on adult hippocampal neurogenesis, relatively few selleck inhibitor have determined whether stress-induced changes in adult hippocampal neurogenesis occur specifically in animals that are more resilient or more susceptible to the behavioural and neuroendocrine effects of stress. While there is a general agreement that chronic stress can

decrease adult hippocampal neurogenesis (Simon et al., 2005, Jayatissa et al., 2006, Jayatissa et al., 2009, Lehmann et al., 2013, Mitra et al., 2006, Dranovsky and found Hen, 2006, Schoenfeld and Gould, 2012, Pham et al., 2003, Perera et al., 2011 and Fa et al., 2014), it is also important to note that negative findings have also been reported (Hanson et al., 2011a, Lee et al., 2006, Lyons et al., 2010, O’Leary et al., 2012 and Parihar et al., 2011). While these negative findings might be stressor, species, sex or strain-dependent (Schoenfeld and Gould, 2012, Hanson et al., 2011b, Westenbroek et al., 2004 and Lisowski et al., 2011), it is also important to consider that interindividual variation in the behavioural susceptibility to stress might contribute to conflicting findings. This also raises the question as to whether changes in adult hippocampal neurogenesis may predict resilience or susceptibility to stress-induced changes in behaviour. Alternatively, an individual’s behavioural response to stress may be independent of the effects of stress on adult hippocampal neurogenesis.